再谈布拉瓦和MITT， 马科耶夫设计局

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按照苏联的导弹测试程序和测试规程。

布拉瓦还没有结束。 同样也说明了白杨-M的入役是如何的仓促。 资金和安全上面的压力。

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By comparison, a typical Soviet missile test program entailed some 15-20 test launches, and START I permits up to seven launches before a missile is considered a prototype and 20 before it begins to count as a deployed missile.[9,10]

Insufficient funding clearly was one of the reasons behind the short testing program, as both designers and the military sought to save money and use available funds more effectively. The fact that the Topol-M shares many components and designs with the earlier and already thoroughly tested Topol ICBM apparently played a role.

In addition, the testing routine was changed as well: the missile was always tested as one unit (in contrast to the Soviet practice of first testing individual components of a new design); ground checks were more thorough and conducted at the testing range instead of the assembly plant, giving the military greater confidence in the new system. Reportedly, the new methods allowed the Russian military to save 21 billion rubles (in mid-1990s prices).


The testing program continued after the missile entered the deployment phase. By the end of 2000, the number of flight tests reached 11 for the silo-based version of Topol-M and one for the mobile version.

Additional tests have been conducted since the missile entered evaluative service in December 1997, and by November 2000 the number of flight tests reached 12,[12] including one test of the mobile variant.[13] All of the additional tests, with the exception of the fifth (in October 1998), were considered successful.[2]

An important reason behind the decision to accelerate the Topol-M program was apparently the need for early replacement of aging types of ICBMs, practically all of which are scheduled for retirement by 2010 or earlier, even taking into account extensions of their service lives. Among them, solid-fuel mobile single-warhead Topols – the only missile that fully satisfied the START II Treaty (except for 105 even older SS-19 ICBMs which could be downloaded from six to one warhead) – were scheduled for retirement around 2005, and Russia could have found itself without any ICBMs whatsoever by the end of the decade.

======================

关于固推， 和SS-18比较，可以看出时间之短。

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The seventh Topol-M test launch, conducted on 3 June 1999, featured a "lateral antimissile maneuver", with the warhead reportedly being guided to its destination by a Glonass-based "Terminator" satellite navigation system.[31]

Finally, thanks to its powerful first-stage boosters, the Topol-M has a short-duration boost phase (shorter by a factor of 4.5 than boost phases of older ICBMs such as the SS-18, which has a five-minute boost phase), which reduces its vulnerability to boost-phase intercept weapons. The missile's greater acceleration also allows it to assume a flatter trajectory, further reducing vulnerability to space-based weapons.

The Topol-M also features a high degree of survivability against attack while on the ground. The silo-based version has been reported to be able to withstand a direct nuclear warhead hit on its silo, and the missile itself is hardened against EMP.[

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大家要记住这个设计局， 这个反应了多轴（高达12轴）整体式底盘越野车设计的最高水平。

伏尔加格勒泰坦中央设计局--前面苏联和现在俄罗斯的整体式底盘越野载车多出自该设计局之手。


8轴， YMZ发动机


The mobile-based Topol-M differs from the silo-based model mainly in modifications to the first stage.[38] It is launched from a special launcher designed at the Titan Central Design Bureau in Volgograd that is mounted on the MZKT-79921 16-wheeled transporter-erector-launcher (TEL) designed and manufactured at the Minsk Wheeled Prime Mover Plant in Belarus.[39]

The new TEL weighs 40 metric tons when empty, is capable of carrying a payload of 80 metric tons, and its 600 kWt diesel engine gives it a top road speed of 70 km/h.[40] The MZKT-79921 will be equipped with an improved navigation system, allowing it to launch missiles accurately from any level paved or unpaved spot within the missile division's deployment area, an improvement over the older mobile Topol, which could only be launched from a limited number of pre-surveyed paved locations.[41]

The TEL's design reportedly incorporates design features intended to reduce its vulnerability to detection by a wide range of space- and air-based sensors.[42]   

The Topol-M has a guaranteed service life of 15-20 years. As is the case with older Russian ICBMs, it can probably be extended by modernization programs

==============================

大家要记住这个设计局， 这个反应了多轴（高达12轴）整体式底盘越野车设计的最高水平。

伏尔加格勒泰坦中央设计局--前面苏联和现在俄罗斯的整体式底盘越野载车多出自该设计局之手。


8轴， YMZ发动机


The mobile-based Topol-M differs from the silo-based model mainly in modifications to the first stage.[38] It is launched from a special launcher designed at the Titan Central Design Bureau in Volgograd that is mounted on the MZKT-79921 16-wheeled transporter-erector-launcher (TEL) designed and manufactured at the Minsk Wheeled Prime Mover Plant in Belarus.[39]

The new TEL weighs 40 metric tons when empty, is capable of carrying a payload of 80 metric tons, and its 600 kWt diesel engine gives it a top road speed of 70 km/h.[40] The MZKT-79921 will be equipped with an improved navigation system, allowing it to launch missiles accurately from any level paved or unpaved spot within the missile division's deployment area, an improvement over the older mobile Topol, which could only be launched from a limited number of pre-surveyed paved locations.[41]

The TEL's design reportedly incorporates design features intended to reduce its vulnerability to detection by a wide range of space- and air-based sensors.[42]   

The Topol-M has a guaranteed service life of 15-20 years. As is the case with older Russian ICBMs, it can probably be extended by modernization programs

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白杨M， 布拉瓦以及其他弹头的设计和测试商--全俄（苏）试验物理研究院


最负盛名的核武器设计机构，第一个原子弹和氢弹就是该局的制作。

激光武器也是该局的一个重点。


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ALL-RUSSIAN SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH INSTITUTE OF EXPERIMENTAL PHYSICS (VNIIEF): FEDERAL NUCLEAR CENTER


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VNIIEF was founded in 1946, under the leadership of Yuliy Khariton, as the Soviet Union's main research and development center for nuclear weapons. Originally called KB No. 11, it developed the first Soviet atomic bomb in 1949.

VNIIEF was originally established to produce  20 RDS-1 atomic bombs yearly, but beginning in December 1949, VNIIEF's output grew sharply. VNIIEF was the first to produce the RDS-6S  hydrogen bomb and the only Russian weapons facility to produce the RDS-1 and RDS-3 nuclear bombs, the 4R ICBM warhead, and the 100 megaton RDS-37. (Warhead production was carried out at the Avangard plant in Sarov.)  In 1955 VNIIEF first began developing the 4R warhead and work expanded to include production of warheads for torpedoes and strategic cruise missiles.[11]
  
In 1992, President Boris Yeltsin declared VNIIEF a Federal Nuclear Center.[1] In 1995, around 24,000 people were employed at VNIIEF.[2]

As of April 1998 the Center employed approximately 18,500 individuals, including 160 new employees who joined VNIIEF in 1997.[10] VNIIEF is currently involved in nuclear weapons research, design, and development and advanced weapons research, including the Iskra-5 iodine laser.[3] VNIIEF also studies nuclear reactor physics, controlled fusion, and the impact of ionizing radiation on health.[4] VNIIEF falls under Minatom's Directorate of Nuclear Warhead Design and Testing.[5] Warheads are tested by the explosions department at a facility called Area 19.[6]
  
Though the primary mission of Arzamas-16 has been to design nuclear warheads, weapons-related activity made up only 60 percent of total operations in 1992.[7] Production levels were to be decreased to 50 percent by 1995[7], but in 1996, weapons-related activity made up 57 percent of VNIIEF's activity.[8]


The activities of VNIIEF are broken down as follows: R&D in the areas of nuclear warheads, weapons automation, and non-nuclear ammunition--57 percent; R&D in the areas of materials science, nuclear and laser physics and engineering, and supercomputers--34 percent; and high-tech projects in the fields of power engineering, mechanical engineering, instrumentation, the environment and medicine--9 percent.[8]
  

In the late 1980s and early 1990s, VNIIEF began research and development of conventional weapons and their components, using gas dynamics research, missile theory, and computational modeling.

VNIIEF's Gas Dynamics complex employs roughly 1,000 specialists and engineers, and includes a research institute that studies the behavior of substances under extreme pressures, a closed complex for the study of  the properties of explosive materials, and a system of internal test sites.[12]

  
By mid-1993, VNIIEF had signed memoranda or protocols with several foreign nuclear laboratories, including the US national weapon laboratories, China's Academy of Engineering and Physics, the Department of Military Application of France's Atomic Energy Commission, the EU's Central Bureau of Nuclear Measurements, and the Institute of Physics of the Czech Academy of Sciences

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白杨M， 布拉瓦以及其他弹头的设计和测试商--全俄（苏）试验物理研究院


最负盛名的核武器设计机构，第一个原子弹和氢弹就是该局的制作。

激光武器也是该局的一个重点。


==

ALL-RUSSIAN SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH INSTITUTE OF EXPERIMENTAL PHYSICS (VNIIEF): FEDERAL NUCLEAR CENTER


--
VNIIEF was founded in 1946, under the leadership of Yuliy Khariton, as the Soviet Union's main research and development center for nuclear weapons. Originally called KB No. 11, it developed the first Soviet atomic bomb in 1949.

VNIIEF was originally established to produce  20 RDS-1 atomic bombs yearly, but beginning in December 1949, VNIIEF's output grew sharply. VNIIEF was the first to produce the RDS-6S  hydrogen bomb and the only Russian weapons facility to produce the RDS-1 and RDS-3 nuclear bombs, the 4R ICBM warhead, and the 100 megaton RDS-37. (Warhead production was carried out at the Avangard plant in Sarov.)  In 1955 VNIIEF first began developing the 4R warhead and work expanded to include production of warheads for torpedoes and strategic cruise missiles.[11]
  
In 1992, President Boris Yeltsin declared VNIIEF a Federal Nuclear Center.[1] In 1995, around 24,000 people were employed at VNIIEF.[2]

As of April 1998 the Center employed approximately 18,500 individuals, including 160 new employees who joined VNIIEF in 1997.[10] VNIIEF is currently involved in nuclear weapons research, design, and development and advanced weapons research, including the Iskra-5 iodine laser.[3] VNIIEF also studies nuclear reactor physics, controlled fusion, and the impact of ionizing radiation on health.[4] VNIIEF falls under Minatom's Directorate of Nuclear Warhead Design and Testing.[5] Warheads are tested by the explosions department at a facility called Area 19.[6]
  
Though the primary mission of Arzamas-16 has been to design nuclear warheads, weapons-related activity made up only 60 percent of total operations in 1992.[7] Production levels were to be decreased to 50 percent by 1995[7], but in 1996, weapons-related activity made up 57 percent of VNIIEF's activity.[8]


The activities of VNIIEF are broken down as follows: R&D in the areas of nuclear warheads, weapons automation, and non-nuclear ammunition--57 percent; R&D in the areas of materials science, nuclear and laser physics and engineering, and supercomputers--34 percent; and high-tech projects in the fields of power engineering, mechanical engineering, instrumentation, the environment and medicine--9 percent.[8]
  

In the late 1980s and early 1990s, VNIIEF began research and development of conventional weapons and their components, using gas dynamics research, missile theory, and computational modeling.

VNIIEF's Gas Dynamics complex employs roughly 1,000 specialists and engineers, and includes a research institute that studies the behavior of substances under extreme pressures, a closed complex for the study of  the properties of explosive materials, and a system of internal test sites.[12]

  
By mid-1993, VNIIEF had signed memoranda or protocols with several foreign nuclear laboratories, including the US national weapon laboratories, China's Academy of Engineering and Physics, the Department of Military Application of France's Atomic Energy Commission, the EU's Central Bureau of Nuclear Measurements, and the Institute of Physics of the Czech Academy of Sciences

==============

接上。

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VNIIEF was one of the first sites to participate in the US Department of Energy MPC&A program and initially demonstrated DOE's Lab-to-Lab program.  Upgrades at VNIIEF began in 1994 with a pilot project and were limited to a few buildings within the VNIIEF complex. The pilot project was completed in 1995 and was used to demonstrate MPC&A methods and technologies that could be used at other facilities within the Minatom weapons complex.  The initial upgrades focused on five areas:  1) computerized accounting and tracking systems; 2) systems to measure nuclear material in containers; 3) physical access control systems (portal monitors, metal detectors, magnetic card readers, hand geometry readers); 4) equipment to monitor nuclear materials in containers (bar-code readers, seals, motion detectors); and 5) equipment to locate and identify lost or stolen nuclear materials.[1]
   
VNIIEF consists of two zones:  the Industrial Zone and the Scientific Zone.  Within the two zones there are 16 individual fenced and guarded areas; 10 in the Industrial Zone and six in the Scientific Zone, including the Reactor Site and the Testing Site.  The Industrial Zone includes three central storage facilities.  Located within the Scientific Zone, the Reactor Site contains two working research reactors.  The Reactor Site in the Scientific Zone was the first area where MPC&A upgrades were completed. Work there began in 1997 and continued throughout 1999.  Upgrades included access control to the perimeter and facility, physical inventories of nuclear material as well as improved accounting and tracking of nuclear material.[1,2]  
  
In the fall of 1997, MPC&A works were expanded to all sites that process or store highly enriched uranium (HEU) and plutonium.[2] As of July 1999, VNIIEF had completed a threat analysis and design for a comprehensive MPC&A system, which is now being implemented at all 16 sites.  However, in September 1999, DOE halted new MPC&A contracts at VNIIEF, VNIITF, Zarechnyy (Penza-19), Lesnoy (Sverdlovsk-45), Trekhgornyy (Zlatoust-36), and  Sarov (Arzamas-16) because DOE had not received the proper assurances (either physical access or photo or video confirmation) from Minatom that upgrades at these sites could be accounted for.[3]  Contracts that were signed prior to September 1999 continue to be fulfilled by DOE.  In May 2000, both sides agreed to a proposal that allowed new work, albeit limited in scope, to begin at VNIIEF and VNIITF

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四大核弹头制造商等下呈上。

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在谈四大核弹生产商之前， 还是谈一谈固推的问题。


MITT就是一个专业的固推火箭设计局，成立之初就是， 一直就是。

第三任领导人因为Bulava辞职， 现在在第四任领导人上。


至于白杨的血统问题， 可以这么说， 生产在乌克兰，KAZAKH， 同时还有乌拉尔。 也就是说有三个地方。苏联时代的白杨肯定是遗传到

俄罗斯手里是不纯的。



不过白杨-M就是纯正的俄罗斯血统了。

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Russia's ICBM design firm: looking back at a dramatic 60-year story

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The Moscow Institute of Thermal Technology (MITT), a major center largely responsible for the nation's strategic deterrent capability, has turned 60 - a milestone that calls for retrospections and assessments.

MITT's latest intercontinental ballistic Topol-M (SS-27) and submarine-launched Bulava-30 (SS-NX-30) missiles have come a long way since May 13, 1946, when the institute, then State Design Bureau 1, was, for the reasons of strategic expediency, brass-plated Powder Projectile Research Institute and became part of the Soviet Agricultural Engineering Ministry.

From the very start, the institute focused on solid-propellant technology, which has proved more advanced than the more powerful liquid propulsion over the years. Overall, MITT has over 70 missile systems on its record, 12 of them nuclear-capable. Others include 29 types of rockets and missiles for the Army (the old Luna-M tactical rocket is still operational in many countries, including Russia) and scores more for the Navy (just to mention the Vikhr, Liven, and, most recently, Medvedka ship-to-ship systems), Air Force (the most remarkable is the AS-71), Space Force, military engineers, and the Emergency Situations Ministry.

On the surface, the institute has always been in the focus of Soviet leadership as everything came on first demand and it was raining awards and decorations - two Lenin Orders for the institute itself, two Hero of Socialist Labor Medals for the founder Alexander Nadiradze and one for his successor Boris Lagutin, 13 Lenin Prizes and 37 State Prizes for the staff and so on - but its history was also marked by bitter rivalries and dramatic turns.

Competition came to a climax in the early 1960s with the greater battlefield role of theater-level missiles. In the ultimate battle, Nadiradze's Temp faced the Gnom, a missile made by Boris Shavyrin and Sergei Nepobedimy at Kolomna KBM now widely known for its Grouse and Grail shoulder-fired SAMs. The Temp's higher cross-country and concealment capabilities were long weighed against the Gnom's more powerful ducted engine and, therefore, higher payload.

In the end, concealment prevailed as the wheeled truck the Temp was mounted on did not leave traces that could be seen from spy satellites, unlike the Gnom's tracked chassis. MITT won the first choice, the Gnom was shown only once at a military parade on Red Square, to the astonishment of Western diplomats, to be cancelled out afterwards. The Temp was commissioned fast though higher payload and range requirements later led to the heavier Temp-S and Temp-2S versions.

A distant leader in nuclear missile technology thanks to the Temp, MITT also became the only choice for what came to be known as the Pioner (SS-20 Saber), a three-nuclear-warhead Russian response to the U.S. Pershing I and Pershing II deployments in Europe. At a range of 5,500 km, its upgrade Pioner-UTTKh had such accuracy that it became one of the reasons for signing the bilateral Soviet-American Intermediate Nuclear Forces (INF) Treaty in 1987, which set the 5,500 km as the upper limit.

Thus MITT contributed to nuclear disarmament, with all its 1,752 deployed and 845 ready-for-deployment missiles destroyed (the U.S. scrapped 859 and 283 missiles, respectively). This story had one particularly revealing episode when 72 sentenced Pioners were used in a U.S.-inspected wargame near the Siberian city of Krasnoyarsk. The U.S. team was clearly thrown off balance by the sight of scores of missiles launched within hours without a minor fault, which is probably why one Saber is still kept at the National Air and Space Museum in Washington, D.C.

The Pioner was gone but the expertise soon led to a more sophisticated design, the strategic Topol (SS-25 Sickle) ICBM finished by Boris Lagutin after Nadiradze's death in 1987. The road mobile three-stage RT-2PM Topol with the effective range of 10,000 km was the first-ever antimissile defense penetrating system. Having 360 Topol missiles built on the 7x7 MAZ-7912 and MAZ-7917 trucks, the Soviet leaders deployed them in the Siberian taiga and deep forests in European Russia, invisible to the AWACS planes and spy satellites, since 1986. Now they are to be replaced by the more precise SS-27s.

Another dramatic chapter in the story of the nation's top missile designer came immediately after the demise of the Soviet Union as MITT's Ukrainian- and Kazakh-based Topol contractors became independent, leaving Votkinsky Zavod in the Urals as the only production base. The loss was recoverable but needed political will, which was there in abundance, and money, which was in extremely short supply. Lagutin's successor Yury Solomonov, backed by the top military, was begging for money around the Kremlin and parliament, warning that a strategic gap was looming between the end of service life of old missiles and planned commissioning of new ones. They did not get a single "no" in response - yet not a single transfer to MITT's bank account.

The problem became worse with the beginning of the Wild-West-style privatization of the defense industry, in which producers of strategic parts and materials switched to Coca Cola bottles and the like. The scramble for money that followed deserves a separate story. For MITT, it became an ordeal that dwarfed the competition drama of the Communist times.

Yet Solomonov & Co won. On December 24, 1997, the first SS-27 was loaded into a silo in Tatishchevo, Saratov Region, the nuclear forces cluster that currently accommodates five full Topol-M regiments with, as on the first day of this year, 42 ICBMs on high-alert service. Solomonov, now 61, and a corresponding member of the Russian Academy of Sciences, has promised the first road mobile deployment at Teikovo, Ivanovo Region, later this year, and the commissioning of the submarine-launched Topol-M sister Bulava-30 (SS-NX-30) as soon as the navy completes the Project 955 Borei nuclear subs currently under construction in the Arctic Severodvinsk.

President Vladimir Putin highly praised MITT's missiles in his recent public remarks, describing the Topol-M as "a missile that does not care" about whatever kind of defenses it might face, what with a hypersonic maneuverable re-entry vehicle shrugging off interceptors.

MITT has ceased to be a purely defense firm and is currently engaged in many civilian programs as well, designing the Start space launch vehicles, the Ishim aircraft-based satellite orbiting technology, the new Moscow monorail transport system, the Zhavoronok independent wind power generators, water purification ozone plants, and so forth. Yet what makes the bulk of its fame is its great role in keeping peace and deterring adversaries.

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四大之一：AVANGARD ELECTROMECHANICAL PLANT (AVANGARD EMZ)


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Avangard is one of four warhead fabrication and disassembly sites; the others are Lesnoy (Sverdlovsk-45), Trekhgornyy (Zlatoust-36), and Zarechnyy (Penza-19).[6]  Avangard was created in 1946, during the same time as VNIIEF, as a production facility for the weaponry developed by VNIIEF. It was the first Soviet enterprise to mass-produce nuclear armaments. Avangard became an independent plant in 1957.[1] At this time, Avangard began to focus on nuclear warhead production. In 1962, Avangard began manufacturing security systems that are used at the Kremlin and other government buildings, and borders and customs check points.[7] Avangard reports to the Nuclear Munitions Production Department of Minatom.[2]
  
Avangard currently dismantles old nuclear weapons and those removed from launchers under the START treaty.[1,3] As part of the conversion and restructuring of the Russian nuclear industry, assembly of nuclear weapons at the Avangard plant in Sarov ceased in the year 2000.[8] According to a 1995 Komsomolskaya pravda article, Avangard has the most efficient system for the assembly and dismantlement of nuclear warheads of all of Minatom's enterprises.[4] According to Bukharin, however, the site's dismantlement capacity is estimated to be small.[5]  Avangard's conversion projects include development and production of dialysis machines, automobile engine filters, and security alarms (its most successful line).[3]  In August 2000, the newly created 10-acre Avangard Technopark was commissioned in an area that was formerly part of the restricted zone of the Avangard plant (for more information, see the 8/30/2000 entry below).[9] In September 2001, the Russian Ministry of Atomic Energy informed the United States that Avangard

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四大之二： 专门建立的核武器制造城市--Trekhgornyy (Zlatoust-36)


The closed city of Trekhgornyy (formerly Zlatoust-36) was established in the mid 1950s to serve as the site for one of Russia's nuclear warhead assembly and disassembly facilities, the Instrument-Making Plant.[1]   Trekhgornyy's  current population is approximately 33,000.[2]  Two national warhead stockpile storage sites associated with the Plant are located approximately 10km from Trekhgornyy.   The Instrument-Making Plant and Trekhgornyy's city administration have been jointly involved in conversion efforts at the Plant and business development projects in the city.  Since 1997, the city's business development efforts have increased.  One successful city development project, a telecommunications equipment plant, is a joint venture between the firm Ron-Telekom and the Canadian telecommunications company NORTEL.  In November 2000, 34 three-year investment projects, worth approximately 6 billion rubles (approximately $216 million as of 10 November 2000), began in Trekhgornyy.[3]  A large ski resort, another of the city's business development projects, opened outside Trekhgornyy in 2000 and is expected to provide up to 2,500 jobs


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INSTRUMENT-MAKING PLANT

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The Instrument-Making Plant is a nuclear warhead assembly, disassembly, and storage site. US satellite imagery indicates that most of the warhead dismantlement done so far has taken place at Trekhgornyy.[1] It has been reported that the Instrument-Making Plant installs "physics packages" into ICBM and SLBM warheads.[2] According to Minatom's downsizing plan of June 1998, the Instrument-Making Plant and Lesnoy (Sverdlovsk-45) will continue with their current weapons assembly/disassembly activities into the foreseeable future.[2]  The number of defense program workers at the warhead assembly facility was expected to decrease to 2,800 in 2001.[2]

Since 1978 the Instrument-Making Plant has been producing safety equipment for the Soviet nuclear energy industry. After the 1986 Chernobyl accident, the manufacture of nuclear safety and radiation control systems became one of the priorities of the Instrument-Making Plant. The Plant produces AKRB-08 third-generation radiation control systems and plans to start the production of the ASRK-2000 fifth-generation complete automatic system of radiation control developed in cooperation with the Moscow company SNIIP-Sistematom.[4] The Plant also manufactures a variety of civilian products such as border poles, boats, medical equipment, bathtubs, car trunks, and polyethylene pipes

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四大之三： 专门建立的核武器制造城--Zarechnyy (Penza-19)


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The closed city of Zarechnyy (formerly Penza-19), located 12km from the city of Penza, Penza Oblast, was founded in 1954.[1,2,4] Zarechnyy is the location of the Start Production Association (PO Start).[5] PO Start is one of four Minatom nuclear warhead assembly and disassembly facilities.[6,7] According to First Deputy Minister of Atomic Energy Lev Ryabev, Start had stopped assembling nuclear weapons by 2000. Minatom has indicated its intention to end warhead dismantlement at this facility in 2003.[7] PO Start also produces detonation systems and other automatic and electronic components and subassemblies of nuclear munitions.[3,8] Zarechnyy also is the location of the Research and Design Institute of Radio Electronics Engineering (NIKIRET), which is part of Minatom's  Eleron Association, a major developer and producer of physical protection systems and equipment for nuclear facilities.[8,9] In 1996, the population of Zarechnyy was slightly less than 64,000

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START PRODUCTION ASSOCIATION (PO START)


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PO Start includes the Penza Instrument-Making Plant, Kuznetsk Machine-Building Plant, and several auxiliary facilities.[1,2] Penza Instrument Making Plant--the main facility and headquarters of the association--is located in Zarechnyy.[2] Kuznetsk Machine Building Plant, which produces specialized tools and equipment for the warhead production complex,[3,4] is located in Kuznetsk, 100 km from Zarechnyy.[5] Cochran et al., however, list Kuznetsk Machine Building Plant as a warhead components production facility located in Zarechnyy.[6]
  
There are three research and development departments at PO Start. The Serial Design Bureau develops information technology, remote control systems, and measuring instruments. The Chief Technologist Department and the Central Plant Laboratory are involved in research and development of new products and technologies


Construction of the instrument-making plant (first code name - Plant No. 592) started in 1955. Initial production began in 1958. In 1960s the facility was renamed the Penza Instrument Making Plant; later, it served as the foundation for the creation of PO Start.[1,2] The plant manufactured detonation systems, electro-mechanical and electronic devices, and components and subassemblies for nuclear warheads. According to Cochran et al., it was involved in warhead component assembly, in contrast to Lesnoy, Trekhgornyy, and Sarov's Avangard facilities, where final warhead assembly took plac


The Start Production Association is one of four Minatom nuclear warhead assembly and dismantlement facilities. According to Yadernyy kontrol, PO Start assembles and dismantles nuclear warheads and stores them in on-site buildings.[1] PO Start also produces detonation systems and other automatic and electronic components and subassemblies for warheads.[1,2] First Deputy Minister of Atomic Energy Lev Ryabev reported that production of new nuclear weapons at PO Start had ended by 2000 and Minatom has indicated its intention to end warhead dismantlement in 2003, when Start will have dismantled all of the warheads that it originally produced. Nuclear materials and production equipment are currently being removed from PO Start and environmental clean-up programs are in progress.[3] As part of its current conversion program, PO Start produces medical equipment, electronic security systems, physical protection system components, measuring instruments, thermal and electric energy monitoring systems, information protection systems, and fiber optic systems for data processing and transmission.[4,6]  In addition, Start manufactures car parts, instrumentation and control equipment for gas pipelines, and industrial lathes. PO Start employs roughly 11,000 people, of which 10,000 work in production divisions; the remaining 1,000 employees work in research and development divisions.[6]

In 1992, Start Director Anatoliy Yesin received approval from the Penza Oblast administration to begin construction on a modern, fully safeguarded storage facility for dismantled nuclear munitions. By 1993, Start had cleared forest land near the old storage site and laid foundations for the new facility.  Local environmental groups challenged the construction, which  began without the environmental impact assessment required by Russian law.  The environmentalists took their complaint to the Oblast Arbitration Court, which in 1994 ordered Start to stop construction until the environmental assessment was conducted. According to Izvestiya, the court's verdict was not enforced and in April 1997, environmentalists filed another suit, challenging the transfer of 1209 acres of land to Start.  The environmentalists won their case and Start was ordered to stop the construction. According to Izvestiya, lack of funding rather than the court decision has prevented Start from resuming construction on the facility

================

四大之四： 专门建立的核武器制造城--Lesnoy (Sverdlovsk-45)

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The closed city of Lesnoy (formerly Sverdlovsk-45) is the location of the Elektrokhimpribor Combine.[1] In 1947, Plant 418 was established to produce highly enriched uranium (HEU).  In the late 1950s, a portion of Plant 418 was used to house a warhead assembly/disassembly facility and was called the Elektrokhimpribor Combine.[2] The nearby city of Nizhnyaya Tura, site of the Nizhnyaya Tura Mechanical Plant, is sometimes included in references to Sverdlovsk-45.[3] Cochran et al. state that Lesnoy is the site of the Ural Electromechanical Plant, but the Nuclear Business Directory states that the UEP is in Yekaterinburg.[4,5] The population of Lesnoy is 58,000, with approximately 10,000 employed at the warhead production complex


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ELEKTROKHIMPRIBOR COMBINE


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The Elektrokhimpribor Combine was opened in the late 1950s and is responsible for assembling, dismantling, and storing nuclear warheads.[1,2] Construction of Elektrokhimpribor began in 1947 with Plant 418, which initially produced highly enriched uranium (HEU) using an electromagnetic separation technique. In the late 1950s, the separation facility was redirected to produce stable isotopes of elements such as thallium, rubidium, zinc, and other non-uranium isotopes, while a portion of Plant 418 was used to house a warhead assembly/disassembly facility.[2,3]  Warhead assembly/disassembly lines were established at Elektrokhimpribor to parallel the work done at the Avangard Electromechanical Plant in Sarov (Arzamas-16).  Elektrokhimpribor eventually became Russia's largest warhead assembly facility and is supported by two large national warhead stockpile storage sites, one of which is located approximately 10km west of Elektrokhimpribor's main production area.[2]  

As of 2001, the Combine serves as a temporary storage site for fissile material components before they are sent on to the Mayak Production Association or the Siberian Chemical Combine for disassembly.[4]  Elektrokhimpribor's other activities focus upon using modern chemical technologies and advanced materials processing methods in areas of nuclear power, chemistry, radiochemistry, welding, and milk processing

the military-industrial commission chaired by then-Prime Minister Putin decided in September 1999 to renew the production of the R-29RM SLBMs. In addition to the Makeyev bureau, the Miass and Zlatoust Machine-Building Plants will also be involved in the production.[2]
  
The Makeyev bureau may also benefit from the January 2002 decision to prioritize the modernization of Russia's naval strategic deterrent. This decision, and the preceding series of visits to the bureau by a broad range of senior Russian government officials may signal a turnaround in the bureau's fortunes, although it remains to be seen whether the Russian government, which has experienced considerable difficulties in funding the high-priority Topol-M ICBM construction program, will be able to afford equally costly large-scale SLBM production.
  
Since all of Makeyev's military products are strategic missiles, none have been cleared or offered for export. However, there are reports that Makeyev specialists have rendered assistance in modernizing North Korea's Scud missiles, and even assisted North Korea in developing its own longer-ranged missiles that are based on the Scud. In particular, there have been allegations that Makeyev specialists have assisted North Korean scientists in scaling up the Isayev 9D21 engine powering the Scud, to make it suitable for the longer-range Nodong missile.[4]
  
Another major area of effort at the Makeyev center is the development of SLVs based on converted SLBMs. Conversion SLV projects developed by the center include Priboy (four stages, using components of R-39 and R-29RM SLBMs), Rif-MA (four stages, based on the R-39), Shtil-2, -3A, and -3N (all based on the R-29RM), Volna (based on the R-29R), and Vysota (based on the R-29).[5] Makeyev GRTs has been involved in the Aerokosmos and Vozdushnyy Start (Air Launch) projects, which involve launching SLV conversions (Rif-MA, Shtil-2A, and Shtil-3A) from heavy transport aircraft, such as the An-124 Ruslan or An-225 Mriya. The Aerokosmos project is pursued mainly by Makeyev, to fill a Rosaviakosmos requirement, whereas Vozdushnyy Start was initiated by the Kompomash Corporation in conjunction with the Polet aviation firm, with the Makeyev bureau providing the SLVs. As of early 2002, neither project has left the development stage.[6]
  
Its SLV development efforts have led the Makeyev bureau to enter into contact with a wide range of foreign firms and governments. In 1997 Makeyev, under contract from Rosaviakosmos and Daimler-Benz Aerospace Infrastructure (DASA-RI), conducted a feasibility study for a family of joint Russian-German lightweight SLVs. This study led to the Riksha project, a family of two-stage lightweight SLVs.[1] In 1995 the Makeyev center started collaborating with Australian company United Launch Systems International (ULSI) on the design of a new SLV, subsequently named ULV-22 Yedinstvo (Unity), designed to launch satellites into low and medium orbits, and developing a space launch facility on Hammock Hill Island off the coast of Australia. The project stalled due to ULSI's inability to attract investors.[7] In 2001 the Makeyev center announced that it completed the development of a demonstration example of the Yedinstvo SLV.[8] The center has also delivered draft plans for the Yedinstvo SLV and similarly named space launch complex to ULSI. Should funding materialize, Yedinstvo will be built at the Progress plant in Samara, part of the State Space-Missile Center SKB-Progress, at a rate of up to 10 SLVs per year. Engines for the first stage were developed by NPO Energomash in Khimki on the basis of engines used in the second stage of the Zenit SLV. Other firms involved in the project include NII Khimavtomatiki in Voronezh (second stage engines), Nizhnyaya Salda-based NII Mashinostroyeniya (low-thrust rocket engines), and KB Transportnogo Mashinostroyeniya.[9] Foreign companies involved in the project included Boeing and Motorola.[8]
  
Supplementing its work on SLVs, the Makeyev bureau has been active in the design of scientific satellites. In 1995 the bureau, under contract with the German space agency DARA, used a Volna SLV to launch an experimental satellite designed by the Center for Applied Space Technologies and Microgravity at Bremen University. In 1998 a Russian SSBN successfully launched two German satellites (Tubsat-N and Tubsat-N1) using a converted SLBM.[1] The bureau also developed the soft landing system for the Mars-96 satellite and developed the Volan re-entry vehicle for use in scientific experiments. To assist in its efforts to market its SLVs and satellites, Makeyev has established a partnership with Aviaexport.[10]
  
Makeyev's non-military production also includes food industry equipment, aerostats, wind turbines, oil and gas industry equipment, chemical industry equipment, rail and light rail cars, hydraulic manipulators for demolition work, and hermetic pumps for industrial use. The bureau also produces firefighting equipment, water purification equipment, medicines, and automation and communications systems.[11]
  
Seeking to benefit from the potentially lucrative scrap metal trade, in 1995 Makeyev,  in cooperation with two other enterprises and the Russian Precious Metals Committee (Roskomdragmet), founded the South Urals Specialized Reclamation Center (YuUrSTsU) for the purpose of extracting precious and non-ferrous metals from submarines undergoing dismantlement. YuUrSTsU is headed by a former Makeyev department head and provides employment for tens of Makeyev missile engineers. YuUrSTsU has concluded contracts with the Nerpa Ship Repair Plant in Snezhnogorsk for participating in submarine elimination and with the Air Force Main Staff to facilitate the dismantling of combat aircraft. YuUrSTsU renders similar services to the Volga-Urals Military District, and is also interested in expanding civilian production. In addition to providing employment to Makeyev engineers, YuUrSTsU is a source of income for the Makeyev bureau, and helps Makeyev procure computer equipment and other office equipment

毛粉真是勤奋啊！不错！

回复 14# 小小大星球

估计TG 在多一些你这样的NC， 就更好了。 无知还装大。

热工所一般叫MITT
MIT指哪里地球人都清楚
:D

马克耶夫以前可是非技术出身，这和杨、梅、科有很大不同。。。

whucsm 发表于 2010-1-27 20:07


   
spirit童子犀利，Moscow Institute of Thermal Technology自然不好与Massachusetts Institute of Technology共用同一个缩写。

以前有人谈关于白杨血统的事情，

结合另外一个帖子，估计都清楚了。

乌克兰就是三大OEM之一.............有一些部件由于这里生产， 当然其他竞争设计局也有这个能力自主设计制造。

    其实相当部分的俄语资料也是称为MIT的，用翻译软件会发觉通篇都是麻省理工,,,{:3_79:}

热工所一般叫MITT
MIT指哪里地球人都清楚
whucsm 发表于 2010-1-27 20:07

    其实相当部分的俄语资料也是称为MIT的，用翻译软件会发觉通篇都是麻省理工,,,{:3_79:}

luzhen_sh323 发表于 2010-1-28 22:23

偶笔误， 就一直误到底呗 。 :D

JSTCVW09CD 发表于 2010-1-28 18:43


    白杨-M的真正雏形应该是RT-2PM通用型方案，或许可以理解为南方设计局为MIT改进早期的白杨~~~1987年开始研制，有2枚样弹曾在苏联解体前夕被送至普列谢茨克，但那时已无暇顾及相关测试，所有工作在1992年被移交回莫斯科热工...

The missile booster fired for a shorter-than-usual duration in placing the dummy warhead and re-entry vehicle into space. The warhead then dropped down to a lower trajectory and was able to maneuver.

Kremlin officials were quoted in Russian press reports as saying the new warhead was designed to thwart the new U.S. missile-defense system of interceptors deployed in Alaska and California.

U.S. officials confirmed some characteristics of the new missile warhead based on an analysis of the Nov. 1 flight test, which was first reported earlier this month by several Russian news organizations.

Unlike current ballistic warheads that do not alter their flight paths sharply once they reach space, the new warhead can change course and range while traveling at speeds estimated at about 3 miles per second, the officials said.

Maneuvering warheads represents a difficult physics challenge because changing course at such high speeds normally would cause a warhead to disintegrate.

Maneuverability would let a warhead thwart missile defenses, because such countermeasures rely on sensors to project a warhead's flight path and impact point so that an interceptor missile can be guided to the right spot to knock out a warhead.

Rick Lehner, a spokesman for the Pentagon's Missile Defense Agency (MDA), declined to comment on U.S. intelligence assessments of the latest Russian warhead test because data is classified.


But Mr. Lehner would say that U.S. missile defenses aim to counter a limited number of warheads from a small nuclear power such as North Korea, not a major strike from a nation with hundreds of missiles, such as Russia.

However, Moscow believes future U.S. defenses, including plans to deploy anti-missile interceptors in Europe or the East Coast of the United States, could be used against Russian strategic missiles.

Russian President Vladimir Putin said a year ago that the new strategic-missile system "will have no analogues," a reference to the hypersonic warhead.

Meanwhile, the Pentagon announced yesterday the Navy's Aegis missile-defense system conducted the sixth successful test of an anti-missile interceptor hitting a target warhead.

It was the first time that a ship-based SM-3 interceptor missile hit a warhead that had been separated from its booster, the MDA said in a statement. The test was carried out near Hawaii from the Aegis-equipped cruiser USS Lake Erie.

In 2009 completed the transition complex of SRF to the mobile Topol-M "

  
MOSCOW, January 22. (ITAR-TASS). In 2009 it is planned to complete the re-Strategic Rocket Forces (SRF) to mobile subterranean missile Topol-M and continue to re-missile system Topol-M silo-based. In addition, troops will receive a new missile with ICBM RS -24, equipped with a section of an independently targetable warheads, reported in the Service of Information and Public Relations Strategic Missile Forces in connection with the completion of work in Vladimir, the Joint Integrated Missile Strategic Missile Forces command group, headed by the commander, Col. Gen. Nikolai Solovtsov.

At the beginning of 2009 in the battle of SRF were 50 launchers, missile system Topol-M silo-based and 12 - a mobile home.

On alert in Vladimir missile defense systems are combining with mobile ICBM based RS-12M Topol, hospital-based RS-18, mobile and fixed-based PC-12M2 Topol-M ".

In connection Teykovskom rocket on Dec. 24, 2008 for combat duty atonement for the second consecutive missile regiment in the mobile command posts and missile battalions of the regiment, armed with a moving dirt missile system Topol-M. Missiles of this complex are equipped with a monocoque front section.

As previously stated the commander of the RVSN N. Solovtsov, a new missile with ICBM RS-24 will be put on combat duty in late December 2009 Launch RS-24 developed by the Moscow Institute of Heat Engineering, meets all the requirements currently in force of international agreements on limiting strategic nuclear weapons. Adoption of its weapons will enhance the combat capabilities of the SMF groups and, above all, to overcome the defense systems of the enemy.

Solomonov has stated openly that the TEL launched SS-27 will carry four to six warheads along with decoys, which implies the same capability for the silo-launched version.



The SS-27 has a range of 10,500 km (6,524 miles) and is reported to typically be equipped with a 550 kT yield nuclear warhead. Unconfirmed reports suggest a yield of 1 MT has been achieved, as well as the placement of up to six MIRV warheads. These enhancements likely come at the cost of reducing the shielding around the warhead and removing the decoys, rendering the missile vulnerable to ABM defenses. It uses a Post-Boost Vehicle (PBV) system to deploy its warhead(s) using a digital inertial navigation system with a GLOSNASS (equivalent to Global Position Satellite) receiver. This achieves a reported accuracy of 350 m CEP, but this accuracy is lower than is reasonable to believe, given modern guidance systems and previous US and Russian missiles. It has a launch weight of 47,200 kg with a length of 21.9 m and a maximum width of 1.9 m. It uses a three-stage solid propellant engine.



The development of the SS-27 began in the late 1980s, though it was redesigned in 1992 as the first totally Russian designed and built missile. The first test launch occurred in December 1994 with the first testing of the TEL vehicle version nearly six years later. The first two SS-27 missiles entered service in 1997 in modified SS-19 silos. The first silo-based missile regiment was declared operational in 1998, with a second in 1999, a third in 2000 and a fourth in 2003. The first TEL versions entered service in 2001. It was originally planned to build 350 missiles, but this has been amended to the construction of 50 missiles by 2005. In 2006 there were 44 missiles in operation.  By 2010 it is believed that there will be 65 silo missiles and 35 mobile missiles. Missile production has occured at a rate of 6 per year since 2001. A sea-based version is under development under the name Bulava.